Literature Review On Leadership Effectiveness Management Essay

Literature Review On Leadership Effectiveness Management Essay In the previous chapter it was discussed the purpose and reason for this investigative study on leadership effectiveness and its possible mediating affects on subordinate job satisfaction. The chapter will critically review the literature characterised the ideas and topics surrounding: This chapter will seek to critically review the literature surrounding: General concepts and models that have been developed discussed on leadership, competences and job satisfaction Influence of competences on the style of leadership Influence of leadership style on subordinate job satisfaction By reviewing existing literature will aid in highlighting, indentifying and discussing factors of a critical nature thus allowing sound understanding when taking the influences of competences on leadership style and its ripples on subordinate job satisfaction, if any. The contents of this literature review will dispense: A definition and explanation of leadership through the use of academic principles, conceptualization and models where suited. Complimented with competences profiling and subordinate job satisfaction when introduced. The critical evaluation will look at key authors and their insights in the areas of leadership styles and competences. To observe areas which have been the focal points of interest based on the topics being acknowledged, research will be made on leadership style and impact on subordinate job satisfaction. Based on what has been revealed whilst reviewing literature will allowed what has been learnt and to pin any hypostasis by what has been viewed. (Please note that some of these paths may and may not follow suit to allow for consistency) Leadership The concept of leadership has had multi attempts to define and evolve what leadership is more often or not proving to be an enigma for theorists and practitioners. These attempts have grown from fields such as management, psychology, ideology, anthropology and sociology. With so much attention Burns (1978) described the matter by stating that leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth (p. 2). Having been numerous attempts in defining the meaning for the term leadership, this has resulted in taking many interpretations. Stogdill (1974, citied in Northouse, 2007, Pg 2) pointed out in a review of leadership research, there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are people who have tried to define it. In Stogdills Handbook of Leadership that was revised and expanded by Bass in (1981) highlighted different definitions and conceptions of leadership had previously been reviewed briefly by Morris and Seeman (1950), Shartle (1951a,b , 1956), L.F. Carter (1953), C. A. Gibb (1954, 1969a), and B. M Bass (1960). This is only a small numerical amount compared to Crainer (1995 cited in Mullins 2007, pg363) that it is claimed there are over 400 definitions of leadership and it is a veritable minefield of misunderstanding and difference though which theorists and practitioners must tread warily. At best of times theoretical perspectives define the concepts being views as a trait, behavioural style, the manipulation of individuals and groups derived through interaction, influence to gain followers and the situation in which its attended. The constant upheaval of leadership suggests that many investigators see leadership as a key structural beam for organisational effectiveness and its influences on the performance; OEs arent just segmented to monetary turnover but a measure of a dependant variable that is employee job satisfaction (Robbins, 2003). Traits Theory of Leadership From the 1930s the trait theory of leadership have been under Jerry et al (1984) , Wexley et al (1984), Smelser et al (2002) Moran et al (2007) Behavioral Theories of Leadership Michigan Ohio Situational Theories of Leadership The theory of situation leadership primary principle distinguishing leadership effectiveness in an particular situation and also what leadership style is most suited to be active in that situation. Most, if not all situational theory hinges on that the style of leadership obtained by a manager should acknowledge sets of circumstances: Management elements such as competencies, personalities and drive Employee elements such as needs derived from personalities, drive and skills Group effectiveness such as task, structure and development Organisational procedures such as standards, rules, power and timing The idea of situational leadership have recognisable and influential models that circulate around this phenomenon, these are indentified as: Fiedlers Model Contingency Houses Model of Path-Goal Fiedlers Contingency Model Fieldler (1967) based his theory on explaining that two variables that have a direct impact the performance of a group. These two variables are widely known as style of leadership and situational favourability. Fiedler (1967) asserted that the most profound leadership trait and situational favourability is distinguished by their similarity that causes the effectiveness of a leader. When leadership trait is said; it is the personality that causes relationship-oriented or task-oriented leader. Fielders contingency theory has come under criticism like most theorists do. The criticism came from the likes of Ashour (1973) Vecchio, (1977) (1983) which suggest the method of measuring the variables and the empirical research conducted were insufficient in allowing for the theory to have any validly. Such an observation is farcical simply because Fiedler has spent years tuning and perfecting his well established and used theory. Houses Path-Goal Model House (1971) based his theory from Vrooms expectancy theory. House (1971) suggests in order for a leader to motivate its subordinates by a way of two means firstly to recognise between individual subordinate needs and an organisations goal(s) by understanding the relationship between the two factors and secondly the leader must state and ease the chosen course not only for the organisational goal(s) but as well as fulfilling their own individual needs. Houses path-goal theory is very much influenced on situational characteristics. Thus allowing its ability to predict the effects it has on behavioural structuring. House also suggests the expectancies and motivations in subordinates are created through the behaviour of the leader this in turn would create job satisfaction by subordinates recognising their capabilities and the weight they perceive their job would get results. Drenth et al (1998) raised a number of criticisms regarding the path-goal theory they asserted that Houses theory doesnt cultivate the collective members as a whole based on behaviour and performance. Secondly they highlight the relationship between leadership behaviours and the group may be heavily influenced by environmental interactions. Lastly it is suggested that when empirical studies are conducted using the path-goal theory most enthusiasts use standardised leadership styles to measure the variable of effectiveness. Morden Management LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES AND SKILLS JOB SATISFACTION Fulfilment Theory Discrepancy Theory Equity Theory Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory Focal Theoretical Research Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper Row. Robbins, S.P, (2003). Organisational Behaviour. 10th Ed. Pearson Education, New Jersey Jerry, L., Gray, A., Starke, F. (1984). Organizational behaviour: Concepts and applications. New York: A Bell and Howell Co. Inc. Wexley, K, N., Yukl, G. A., (1984). Organizational behaviour and personnel psychology. US: Richard D Irwin Smelser, N, J., Baltes, P, B., (2002) International encyclopedia of the social behavioral sciences. Oxford: Elsevier Inc Moran, R. T., Harris, P,R.,, Moran, S. V., (2007) Managing cultural differences: global leadership strategies for the 21st century 7th ed. Oxford: Elsevier Mullins, Laurie J. (2007) Management and organisational behaviour / Laurie J. Mullins . 8th ed. . Harlow : Financial Times Prentice Hall Northouse, P, G., (2007) Leadership Theory and Practice 4th ed. United Kingdom: Sage Publications. Bass, B, M., (1981) Stogdills Handbook of Leadership Revised and expanded Edition. New York: The Free Press Gordon, J. R. (1987). A diagnostic approach to organizational behavior. New York: Allyn and Boston Fiedler, F. E. (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, New York: McGraw-Hill. Vecchio, R. P. (1977) An Empirical Examination of the Validity of Fiedlers Model of Leadership Effectiveness, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 19: 180-206. Vecchio, Robert P (1983) Assessing the Validity of Fiedlers Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness: A Closer look at Strube and Garcia, Psychological Bulletin 93: 404-8 Ashour, A. S. (1973) The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness: An Evaluation, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 9(3): 339-55. Lawler, E. E., III (1973). Motivation in work organizations. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company: Monterrey, CA. Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational behavior and human performance. In E. E. Lawler (1973). Motivation in work organizations. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company: Monterrey, CA. House, R, J., A Path-Goal Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. XVI(1971), 321-38 Drenth, D J P., Thierry, H., De Wolff, J, C., 1998 A Handbook Of Work And: Organizational Psychology united kingdom Psychology Press Ltd

Albinism :: essays research papers

Albinism The word "albinism" refers to a group of inherited conditions. People with albinism have little or no pigment in their eyes, skin, or hair. They have inherited genes that do not make the usual amounts of a pigment called melanin. One person in 17,000 has some type of albinism. Albinism affects people from all races. Most children with albinism are born to parents who have normal hair and eye color for their ethnic backgrounds. Albinism is found on the eleventh chromosome, section q, loci 14-21. Oculocutaneous albinism involves the eyes, hair, and skin. Ocular albinism involves primarily the eye. People with ocular albinism may have slight lightening of hair and skin colors as well, compared to other family members. At present researchers have found 10 different types of oculocutaneous albinism, and five types of ocular albinism. Newer laboratory research studying DNA has shown that there are numerous types of changes in the genes of those with albinism, including within families. The most common types of oculocutaneous albinism are called "ty-negative" and "ty-positive". Persons with ty-negative albinism have no melanin pigmentation, and more difficulty with vision. Those with ty-positive albinism have very slight pigmentation, and generally less severe visual difficulties. Tests were done on the hair roots of individuals with albinism, to tell these types of albinism apart. However, these hair tests cannot identify types of albinism, particularly in young children, whose pigment systems are immature. Therefore hair tests are not helpful in predicting the extent of visual disability of a child. "Ty-Neg" (also called Type 1A) albinism results from a genetic defect in an enzyme called tyrosinase. Tyrosinase helps the body to change the amino acid tyrosine into pigment. The genetic defect that causes albinism in other types of albinism is unknown, but it is speculated that it involves other enzymes used to make pigment. Albinism is passed from parents to their children through genes. For nearly all types of albinism both parents must carry an albinism gene to have a child with albinism. Parents may have normal pigmentation but still carry the gene. When both parents carry the gene, and neither parent has albinism, there is a one in four chance at each pregnancy that the baby will be born with albinism. This type of inheritance is called autosomal recessive inheritance. If a parent has a child with albinism, it means the parent must carry the albinism gene. Until recently, unless a person has albinism or has a child with albinism, there was no way of knowing whether he or she carries the gene

Learning and behavior

1. Define classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Identify the basic procedures of both types of conditioning. Identify and discuss the similarities and differences between the two types.  Traditionally, theories of conditioning have come to mean that learning takes place when two or more events are associated because they occur together. Scientific references to classical conditioning are commonly associated with Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) as he was the first person to discuss issues related to classical conditioning with others in the scientific community.   Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which two stimulus events are associated.   Typically, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UR).   The result is that the conditioned stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a new response (the conditioned response, or CR) that is similar in form to the unconditioned response. On the other hand, Skinner (1953) developed the method of conditioning through what has been termed operant or instrumental conditioning. Skinner’s version of instrumental conditioning, called operant conditioning, is a technologically based model that has generated a great deal of research.  Ã‚   Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior emitted by the learner which may be reinforced by its consequence.   In operant conditioning, whether a response occurs in the future depends upon the nature of the contingency.   If a response makes life better for the individual, it will likely occur in the future.   If it makes life worse, it will likely not occur again in the future.   Thus, operant conditioning makes use of reinforcements. The basic theory of both conditioning is behaviorism, which was formulated by the American behaviorists John B. Watson.   This theory has been described as an evolutionary, psychological doctrine developed to support the evolutionistic theories of knowledge.   It holds that all man’s behavior, mental states and processes have a purely physiological origin and function consisting of neurological, glandular, and other bodily responses to sensory stimuli; and that under proper stimulation can be appropriately conditioned to produce any desired response. Both classical and operant conditionings involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.  Ã‚   Yet their difference is straightforward: Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior- reflexive behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.   Operant conditioning on the other hand, involves voluntary (nonreflexive) action, called operant behavior because the act operates on the environment to produce rewarding or pushing stimuli. 2. Identify two real-life experiences in which learning principles can apply. Discuss each experience and the principles of learning that are applicable. Be sure to fully explain each of the learning concepts that apply to these two experiences. Identify ways in which learning in the two experiences can be inhibited and improved. Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning apply to human health and well-being.   For example, former crack cocaine apply often feel a craving when they again encounter cues (people, places) associated with previous highs.   Thus, drug addicts are advised to steer clear of settings associated with the euphorbia of previous drug use.   Classical conditioning even works upon the body’s disease-fighting system.   When, say, a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response. Everyday applications of operant conditioning are the experiments comparing computer-assisted instruction (CAI) to traditional classroom instruction suggest that, for some drill and practice tasks, the computer can indeed be more effective.  Ã‚   According to Skinner, â€Å"Good instruction demands two things,† he said.   â€Å"Students must be told immediately whether what they do is right or wrong and, when right, they must be directed to the step to be taken.† References Bolles R. C. (1989). Learning theory (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bower G. H., & Hilgard E. R. (1981). Theories of learning (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Domjan M. (1998). The principles of learning and behavior (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Free Essays on The Client

The Client AUTHOR: John Grisham. OTHER INFORMATION: The book was first published by Century in the United Kingdom in 1993. The story is told by an omniscient narrator who shifts in the point of view. The story contains fory-two chapters. TYPE: novel SUBJECT: The story takes place in Memphis and tells about an eleven-year-old boy, Mark Sway, whom a secret is told where the corp of a US senator is hidden. Together with his lawyer, Reggie Love, they fight against the FBI, because they want to know the location of the murdered senator, at whatever cost of Mark and his family. SYNOPSIS: One day, Mark goes with his brother Ricky into the forest. While the boys are smoking, they see a man who wants to commit suicide. Mark wants to help the man and removes the hose from the exhaust. The man, who is a lawyer of a mafia boss, catches Mark and tells him, where the corp of a killed US senator is hidden. Mark is able to escape before the man kills himself. After that the boys run home and call the police. Mark is asked a lot of questions whether he knows the location of the body of the murdered senator. Mark can ´t stand the fact that everybody asks him questions and so he decides to hire a lawyer. Her name is Reggie Love, a woman who first of all does not take him seriously, but when Mark tells her his story, she agrees to take his case. Together, Mark and Reggie try to "fight" against the FBI and the state. The FBI agents think that Mark keeps very important informations because he does not tell the FBI even not the judge where the location of the corp is. After a long time the FBI understands Mark`s fear and so they offer the Sway-family to take part in the witness - protection - program. But Mark is still afraid because a mafia boss, Barry Muldanno, wants to kill him. Then Mark tells Reggie where the corp is hidden and so they go there to dig for it. They find the body and with a trick they, can get rid of the mafia, who ... Free Essays on The Client Free Essays on The Client The Client AUTHOR: John Grisham. OTHER INFORMATION: The book was first published by Century in the United Kingdom in 1993. The story is told by an omniscient narrator who shifts in the point of view. The story contains fory-two chapters. TYPE: novel SUBJECT: The story takes place in Memphis and tells about an eleven-year-old boy, Mark Sway, whom a secret is told where the corp of a US senator is hidden. Together with his lawyer, Reggie Love, they fight against the FBI, because they want to know the location of the murdered senator, at whatever cost of Mark and his family. SYNOPSIS: One day, Mark goes with his brother Ricky into the forest. While the boys are smoking, they see a man who wants to commit suicide. Mark wants to help the man and removes the hose from the exhaust. The man, who is a lawyer of a mafia boss, catches Mark and tells him, where the corp of a killed US senator is hidden. Mark is able to escape before the man kills himself. After that the boys run home and call the police. Mark is asked a lot of questions whether he knows the location of the body of the murdered senator. Mark can ´t stand the fact that everybody asks him questions and so he decides to hire a lawyer. Her name is Reggie Love, a woman who first of all does not take him seriously, but when Mark tells her his story, she agrees to take his case. Together, Mark and Reggie try to "fight" against the FBI and the state. The FBI agents think that Mark keeps very important informations because he does not tell the FBI even not the judge where the location of the corp is. After a long time the FBI understands Mark`s fear and so they offer the Sway-family to take part in the witness - protection - program. But Mark is still afraid because a mafia boss, Barry Muldanno, wants to kill him. Then Mark tells Reggie where the corp is hidden and so they go there to dig for it. They find the body and with a trick they, can get rid of the mafia, who ...

Can My Indie Book Be Discovered

Can My Indie Book Be Discovered You have an indie book out there, but youd love to call yourself a traditionally-published author. What does it take for an agent or press to WANT to sign your book.or sign with you? Remember, theres the book, and then theres you. Some authors bring attention to themselves. Some books take off and garner attention all THE BOOK A CATCH 22 Whether or not the agent/publisher wants your indie book is often decided agent/publisher has to determine if it has saturated the market or not. It may have already peaked and reached the readers its targeted for, and the agent/publisher may see theres nothing left in it for them. On the flip side, it may not have done well, which is interpreted as the book isnt made well, isnt written well, or isnt about a good topic. So why would they want it? Theres a small sweet spot in there to make an indie book palatable to the traditional market. There has to be enough spark left in it for the agent to capitalize upon. THE AUTHOR ANOTHER CATCH 22 If your book does well, often the agent/publisher may take a deeper look at the author. How does he market himself? What impact did the author have in the success of the book? What kind of website/blog? How Google-able is he? That type of author can pitch a second book and have great odds of being accepted. But the question is . . . why would he if hes successful as an indie author where the royalties are SO much greater? We have actually reached the point in publishing that you can make as much or more as an indie author as you can as a traditional author. Youll still have to market yourself hard VERY hard. You get no relief traditionally in that department. Your books will be more readily available in libraries and bookstores (though IngramSpark is closing that gap), but in reality, you can often get your books placed in bookstores But if that credibility factor still keeps you awake at night, and you just want that traditional accolade checked off your bucket list, pitch traditional to start with. Be very, very patient at the time it takes to work that system. Or if you arent that patient, work hard as an indie author, knowing that you can pitch subsequent books  later to the traditional world, and your success will often depend  upon the success of your first book youre selling on your own.   Chip MacGregor of MacGregor Literary Agency talks about what it takes for an agent to pick up your indie book. Its honest and very informative. Regardless of the road you take, realize that the professional credibility you seek is completely in your hands. Study the successful in the business, indie or traditional or hybrid of the two, and see what you can do to find success in your world. macgregorliterary.com/blog/ask-agent-transition-self-published-traditionally-published/

Cultural anthropology and the Higaonon Tribe of Mindanao Essay

Cultural anthropology and the Higaonon Tribe of Mindanao - Essay Example Cultural anthropology refers to ‘the study of human society and culture,the sub-field that describes,explains social and cultural similarities and differences’.In order to study and interpret cultural diversity, Keesing highlights that cultural anthropologists must engage in ethnographic activity Ethnography therefore provides an account of a particular community, society and culture, and allows researchers to study local behavior beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics and religion according to Kottak (2009). Introduction and Location of the Higaonon Tribe of Mindanao The Higaonon tribal population currently stands at an estimated 350, 000, and largely reside over five distinct provinces – Bukidnon, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Misamis Oriental and Lanao del Norte. They are traditionally a nomadic tribe, traveling from one mountain to another, looking for fertile soil for a fruitful harvest. The name Higaonon is derived from the words â €˜higa’ meaning   living, the word ‘goan’, which   means mountains and the word ‘onon’ meaning people. The Higaonon tribe has thus become known as ‘people of the living mountains’. Since ‘creation times’ the Higaonon are said to have lived in their forest home, undisturbed, managing the forest in a natural and harmonious way. Higaonon Tribe Dynamics The tribe consists of eight clans centred around the eight main rivers of the Higaonon’s ‘Ancestral Domain’. These clans are divided into the warrior and peaceful clans. However, both clans now exist in peace with one another. They follow a Datuship system of government, in which each Datu (generally an elder) is trained in distinct areas of expertise, e.g. in education or spirituality. However, the Datu always leads as an administrator, and never as a ruler. Social and Cultural Customary Laws and Sacred Teachings of the Higaonon The social and cultural dynamics of the Higaonon tribal people are governed by the customary laws of Bunkatol Ha Bulawan Daw Nang Ka Tasa ha Lana, which means ‘treasured unity’ or code of conduct. It is a sacred bond that unites the entire Higaonon people, who share a common root language, history and culture (Jong, 2010). These sacred teachings include; Don't go against the law Don't disobey the sacred orders Don't be an egotistic or self-centred person Don't compare yourself to others Don't be envious of others Asking and Giving is the greatest gift of Creation Love one another Live in Peace Equality among Men Listen to everyone Religious Teaching In The Higaonon Tribe The Higaonon tribes are very spiritual and believe that every living thing has a spirit that guides or animates its behavior. The forest is viewed as the Higaonon people’s ‘church’, in which they believe that their ancestor’s spirits live in the mother trees, watching over the land. Prayer rituals a re offered to deities over sacrifices of blood, in which chickens and pigs are usually scarified to ‘the forest spirits’. Human sacrifice does not form a part of Higaonon tribal religion. Tribal burials consist of a ritual washing and cleansing of the corpse in which jewellery and face and body painting decorates the dead body to allow the spirits to identify the dead person in question. This is followed by the cremation of the body, in which the smoke and fire is believed to release the spirit of the deceased. The Higaonon tribe are also true peace loving people, and have been given the name ‘weavers of peace’ (The United Association of Higaonon Tribes, 2011) This is because their strive for peace is expressed in their traditional woven fabric, the Hinabol. The

Educational Web Portal's Use in the Study of Environmental Sciences Essay

Educational Web Portal's Use in the Study of Environmental Sciences - Essay Example While environmental science has gained a lot of attention of people in general and the educationalists in particular in the advanced economies, it remains a relatively neglected area of education in the third world countries primarily because there are several issues of much greater importance like poverty, hunger, violence, and terrorism that need to be solved before the people can pay attention towards the environment. Reduced emphasis of the government and the people in power on environmental sciences as an area of research and education restrains people’s access to the potential sources of information related to environmental sciences in the third world countries. In such circumstances, there is dire need of an online network that encapsulates all the required information about environmental sciences and one that is constantly upgraded and updated to make the latest findings and knowledge generated from the ongoing research and surveys in the advanced countries accessible to the interested learners in the third world countries. An educational web portal is a very effective tool to inculcate knowledge about the environmental science. People can connect with one another to form a learning community using the educational web portals. ... Educational web portals host research, lesson plans, and online course work, provides parents with a means to access the grades, monitor student outcomes, and satisfy the reporting standards established by the state. Educational web portals develop a common gateway to all the services and data that people need to share knowledge and jointly work on the environmental science projects. Educational web portals can be developed using such basic technologies as Windows Server and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server. Rapid availability of these technologies and expertise in their use extends the investment’s value in the Microsoft technologies. Educational web portals help the people achieve different kinds of goals and tasks that include but are not limited to the development of online communities for collaboration among the learners, administrators and the subject experts. â€Å"Portals, when properly designed, increase both effectiveness and efficiency of an institution†¦[an d] can be used as an effective communication tool† (Popovic et al., 2005, p. 322). People can use the educational web portals to improve the sharing of best practices in the industry among the members of the community. Users of the educational web portals can access the institution’s resources whenever required. The online document libraries available on the educational web portals are constantly updated with latest research findings and important documents like conference proceedings. When educational web portals are implemented in schools, it provides several kinds of services including lunch ordering, and online class registration. Educational web portals use dashboards to display updated performance data of the students. Students can share information with the community members, school